Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. CAS Article Google Scholar Fu, E. et al. l = γ r cos θ 2 μ t. Potato virus Х (PVX) was selected as a target analyte … Lab Chip, 19 (2019), pp. Lab Chip, 19(15):2486-2499, 01 Jul 2019 Cited by: 24 articles | PMID: 31251312. Review CagA is proved to be associated closely with initiation of gastric carcinoma. Lin B, Guan Z, Song Y, Song E, Lu Z, Liu D, et al. DOI: 10.1039/C9LC00104B. Improved sensitivity of lateral flow assay using paper-based sample concentration technique. Lateral flow assay (LFA) is one of the most prevalent commercially available techniques for point-of-care tests due to its simplicity, celerity, low … However, in its classical version, it has low sensitivity and can only perform semiquantitative detection, based on colorimetric signals. However, the current NALFAs are still limited by low sensitivity because of the poor understanding and control of the underlying complex flow and reaction processes. Full-text available. Methods: To this end, we established a highly sensitive and reliable POC lateral flow strip based on lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (NPs) for cTnI determination in human blood samples. Journal of Immunological Methods, 2008. The normalized intensities (NI) of CLFA (ΔT) or VLFA (absorbance) signals were used to evaluate the LFA detection sensitivity. The developed assay can be utilized as a low-cost detection system of SEB in routine food testing laboratories. Clin Chim Acta. Lateral flow assay (LFA) has become one of the most widely used point-of-care diagnostic methods due to its simplicity and low cost. The porous membrane has a detection zone which has a chromophore configured to chemically react with an analyte or a secondary trigger or a reaction … Systems, methods, devices and test kits for detecting an analyte and quantifying an analyte level in a biological fluid sample using a lateral flow assay with enhancement solution are disclosed. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective Joshua D. Bishop, a Helen V. Hsieh, a ... LFA sensitivity enhancement, we have endeavoured to criti- However, its qualitative readout process and lack of sensitivity are limiting factors. Exploring carbohydrate binding module fusions and Fab fragments in a cellulose-based lateral flow … Latex particles are versatile and have been used in lateral flow assays since their initial development. Jul 2019; Josh Bishop. It has advantages such as low cost, rapid readout, portability, and ease of use. Lateral flow assays (LFAs) are a widely-used point-of care diagnostic format, but suffer from limited analytical sensitivity, especially when read by eye. Biosens Bioelectron. Lab Chip, 19(15):2486-2499, 01 Jul 2019 Cited by: 20 articles | PMID: 31251312. Review Conclusions: Future Directions for Lateral Flow Lab Chip 19:2486–2499. The strategies were based on post-assay in situ modification of Au nanoparticles and thus are applicable for the majority of lateral flow immunoassays. Lab Chip (2019) ... Thailand. For more than 200 food samples, reproducible experiments were achieved in the range of 10 4 –10 5 CFU mL −1 detection sensitivity. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. The microfluidic serological assay combining nano-interstices and digitized flow control is capable of detecting anti-N IgG and IgM in only 5 min with a sensitivity and specificity of 91.67% and 100% validated by testing 152 serum samples as described by Lee et al. By developing AuNP avidin-biotin constructs in which a number of enzymes can be labeled we report on an enhanced LF-ICA system to detect pathogens at very low levels. The assay can be carried out directly on any urine samples without sample pretreatment. The process of developing analytical tools for vaccine research is similar regardless of whether a researcher is developing an in vitro assay or an in vivo preclinical model ().The first step in developing a new assay is to define the research question that needs to be addressed, thereby allowing selection … The report suggested an inadequacy of the LFIA test to diagnose COVID-19 with the current performance. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA), also known as immunochromatographic assays (ICA), are the most frequently used and commercialized rapid sensing platform and widely applied in disease diagnosis, point-of-care testing (POCT) and food safety monitoring because of its low cost, rapidity and simplicity [39, 40]. In this system, gold nanoparticles were utilized as high mass label to improve the sensitivity of the assay. ... ZadehKafi A, et al. By Victor Cristea. The nucleocapsid protein (NP) of SARS-CoV-2 has been selected as an ideal marker for viral antigen detection. AuNPs enhancement strategy can improve the sensitivity of the device for 5-fold when compared with non-enhancement system. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Five microlitres of each target mix was added to the biosensors’ conjugation pad, where 5 μ L of Au NPs functionalized with anti-biotin was already placed. A SERS-based lateral flow assay for the rapid and sensitive detection of COVID-19 was reported for the first time. Lateral flow assay (LFA) has long been used as a biomarker detection technique. et al., 2019. The fluorescent intensity can be modulated to separate the autofluorescence background signal. DOI: 10.1039/C9LC00104B. This method involves the reduction of silver ions on the GNPs surface followed by color conversion from red to black. Bishop JD, Hsieh HV, Gasperino DJ, Weigl BH. Lateral flow assay modified with time-delay wax barriers as a sensitivity and signal enhancement strategy Biosensors and Bioelectronics 27 de agosto de 2020 The ease of use, low cost and quick operation of lateral flow assays (LFA) have made them some of the most common point of care biosensors in a variety of fields. We report a photon-counting approach to accurately quantify LFAs while enhancing sensitivity. The sensitivity and specificity of RT-IPCR were not compromised by the foods tested and was able to detect SEB conveniently. Latex particles are versatile and have been used in lateral flow assays since their initial development. Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is widely used but is limited by its sensitivity. Cryptococcal meningitis is common in sub-Saharan Africa. The assay performance was ∼76% sensitivity and ∼97% specificity for PLR-ZnT8, ∼71% sensitivity and ∼95% specificity for IA2A, and ∼40% sensitivity and ∼86% specificity for GADA. Although enormous efforts have been devoted to enhancing detection sensitivity of … Lateral Flow Immunoassay Systems: Evolution from the Current State of the Art to the Next Generation of Highly Sensitive, Quantitative Rapid Assays. InfectCheck CRP barcode-style lateral flow assay for semi-quantitative detection of C-reactive protein in distinguishing between bacterial and viral infections. Bishop JD, Hsieh HV, Gasperino DJ, Weigl BH. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Silver enhancement (growth of a silver layer over Au NPs—Au@Ag NPs) … RESULTS . FIG. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. These results demonstrate the potential feasibility of the proposed SERS-based lateral flow assay to quantitatively detect a broad range of genetic diseases with high sensitivity. Developed micro-fluidic flow systems ... of active antibodies allowed for an improvement in assay sensitivity with a low detection limit of 0.01 ng/mL. Lateral flow assay (LFA) has long been used as a biomarker detection technique. From an epidemiological perspective, a validated serological assay could be used to identify the proportion of individuals exposed to the virus in various populations, such that the … Quantitative and ultrasensitive detection of multiplex cardiac biomarkers in lateral flow assay with core-shell SERS nanotags. 14–16 14. Easy to use, its small size and modern design make it comfortable to use anytime. For example, in a lateral flow strip format, aptamer functionalized Gold-nanoparticles (AuNPs) have shown unequivocal visual detection of down to 2.5 nM thrombin (signal/noise = 3), providing superior sensitivity and specificity relative to conventional antibody-based assays (Xu et al., 2009). While simple to perform and easy to read, the sensitivity of LFIAs is ultimately limited by the extinction coefficients of the Lateral flow assays (LFAs) are rapid, inexpensive, easy-to-manufacture and -use tests widely employed in medical and environmental applications, particularly in low resource settings. However, probe-based lateral flow assay in combination with SDA could provide robust multiplexing detection higher than their peer antibodies . Article. 2486-2499. This method involves the reduction of silver ions on the GNPs surface followed by color conversion from red to black. Fluorescent Probe-Based Lateral Flow Assay for Multiplex Nucleic Acid Detection. 2486 - 2499 , 10.1039/c9lc00104b View Record in Scopus Google Scholar Download scientific diagram | Methods to improve the sensitivity of lateral flow assays. Powered by … Bernhard H. … The iPeak® is your Lateral Flow Reader that adds objectivity to your lateral flow assays, enhancing the colors of your test. 12(3):272-280. doi: 10.1039/c9ay02247c., 2020 Beginning as a protein blotting substrate, porous nitrocellulose membranes have grown to be the most commonly used lateral flow substrate and are the primary membranes used in two-dimensional paper networks for user-friendly multistep assays. Shan S, Lai W, Xiong Y, Wei H, Xu H. Novel strategies to enhance lateral flow immunoassay sensitivity for detecting foodborne pathogens. 1.1. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still raging all over the world. ... D., 2016. Hence, the rapid and sensitive screening of the suspected population is in high demand. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) have been developed and used in a wide range of applications, in point-of-care disease diagnoses, environmental safety, and food control. Historically, LFAs have been stigmatized as having limited sensitivity. However, as their global usage expands, extensive research has demonstrated that it is possible to substantially improve LFA sensitivity without sacrificing their advantages. In this critical review, we have compiled state-of-the-art approaches to LFA sensitivity enhancement. A facile one-step gold nanoparticles enhancement based on sequential patterned lateral flow immunoassay device for C-reactive protein detection. 2016;148:272-278 This test could be easily used on site to detect heroin in oral fluid, and it could be a promising product in the future including for driving under the influence. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: A systems perspective. We determined the analytical sensitivity of our assays using industry standard definitions of the diagnostic LOD to guarantee a 95% probability of successful detection. t d = 156.52 d 2. ... Signal enhancement in a lateral flow immunoassay based on dual gold nanoparticle conjugates. Sirkka N, Lyytikäinen A, Savukoski T, Soukka T. Upconverting nanophosphors as reporters in a highly sensitive heterogeneous immunoassay for cardiac troponin I. Anal Chim Acta. AbstractAlkaline phosphatase (ALP) was used as an amplification tool in lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA). (a) Fluorescence-based signal enhancement by addition of … 2018; 18 (6):965-970; 125. Keywords: lateral-flow immunoassays, catalytic label, increased sensitivity . For example, in a lateral flow strip format, aptamer functionalized Gold-nanoparticles (AuNPs) have shown unequivocal visual detection of down to 2.5 nM thrombin (signal/noise = 3), providing superior sensitivity and specificity relative to conventional antibody-based assays (Xu et al., 2009). Evolving Future Performance in POC Diagnostics. Historically, LFAs have been stigmatized as having limited sensitivity. Danthanarayana AN, Finley E, Vu B, Kourentzi K, Willson RC, Brgoch J., "A multicolor multiplex lateral flow immunochromatographic assay for high-sensitivity analyte detection using persistent luminescent nanophosphors." Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Devices, systems, and methods are provided for magnetic focus enhanced lateral flow assays. To support the development and commercial release of a rapid point-of-care diagnostic for SARS-COV-2, the customer required a supply of high-sensitivity custom gold conjugates at scale. There are several self-sufficient paper-based devices that have been reported, which improve the performance of the lateral flow assay in terms of reducing non-specific binding, improving quality of test lines, and limit of detection. By Sandipan Ray. From an economical perspective, reduced reagent consumption and lower overall cost are expected as a result of more efficient chemistry. ... J.D. Sensitivity enhancement of lateral flow assays has frequently been achieved by incorporating various nanomaterials – such as gold or silver nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, and quantum dots – into the system [19, 31, 32]. Carbohydrate Research, 314 (1-2): p. 95-99, 1998. Multiplexed lateral flow assays, related methods, and devices are disclosed which are capable of simultaneously detecting multiple analytes. 4 In another application, a sensitive and specific strategy for the detection of Staphylococcus aureus was achieved by He et al. The CRICOLAP system achieved ultra-sensitivity of 1 copy/µL in ~32 min by portable real-time fluorescence detection and ~60 min by LFS. Here, we propose a systems engineering perspective on the refinement of paper-based assays, where Bishop JD, Hsieh HV, Gasperino DJ, Weigl BH. Given the need for data for a rapid, point-of-care cryptococcal antigen (CRAG) lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (LFA), we assessed diagnostic performance of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) culture, CRAG latex agglutination, India ink microscopy, and CRAG LFA for 832 HIV … However, the step form classification between discrete bins to regression against a continuous scale is an other key challenge on the path of analytical quantification . Bishop JD, Hsieh HV, Gasperino DJ, Weigl BH. The dipstick can be used to develop qualitative or quantitative rapid test systems for a wide range of analytes such as … Lab Chip, 19 (2019), pp. Here, we reported that a charge-coupled device (CCD)-based test strip reader combined with CdS quantum dot-labeled lateral flow strips for quantitative detection of CagA was developed, which used 365-nm … 2486-2499. Sensitivity increased for all assays in sera collected beyond day 14 after symptoms onset (93.9%, 79.6%, 93.9%, and 93.9%, respectively). Sci. et al., 2019. We have used a categorical framework to identify state-of-the-art innovations in LFA sensitivity enhancement, group them according to shared strategies, and critically assess their limitations from a Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. However, PCR tests are expensive and complex, require skilled personnel and specialized equipment to conduct the tests, and have long turnaround times. We explored AuNPs as antibody labels in a lateral flow assay for rapid and sensitive detection of 6-MAM via a colorimetric signal. LFA, immunochromatographic strip test, which can be developed by Abs, aptamer, and nucleic acids, was described in the 1960s [] and become a popular platform for rapid immunoassays since the mid-1980s [15, 16, 17].Depending on their formats, LFAs might be expressed as dipstick assay, lateral flow device (LFD), point of care (POC) to bedside … One of the common approaches to improve LFIA sensitivity is the silver enhancement method. On the other hand, lateral flow immunoassay-based antigen tests are rapid, relatively … In this study, a novel centrifugation-assisted lateral flow immunoassay (CLFIA) was proposed that had enhanced sensitivity compared to traditional LFIA based on test strips. State of the Art with the Development and Use of Lateral Flow Tests. This review provides a perspective on the nature, history, and future of nitrocellulose-based assays. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) have been developed and used in a wide range of applications, in point-of-care disease diagnoses, environmental safety, and food control. JD Bishop, HV Hsieh, DJ Gasperino, BH Weigl ... Antibody Screening Results for Anti-Nucleocapsid Antibodies Toward the Development of a Lateral Flow Assay to Detect SARS-CoV-2 Nucleocapsid Protein. The authors describe a method to improve the sensitivity of the lateral-flow immunoassay (LFA), in which the target molecules are … ... D., 2016. For example, in a lateral flow strip format, aptamer functionalized Gold-nanoparticles (AuNPs) have shown unequivocal visual detection of down to 2.5 nM thrombin (signal/noise = 3), providing superior sensitivity and specificity relative to conventional antibody-based assays (Xu … SERS-based lateral flow assay was 0.24 pg/mL, which was at least 1000 times more sensitive compared to colorimetric or fluorescent detection methods. to classify images of lateral flow strips [62, 63] or pH indicator papers [64]. Test Principle. Lateral flow assays (LFAs) have currently attracted broad interest for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics, but their application has been restricted by poor quantification and limited sensitivity. It has advantages such as low cost, rapid readout, portability, and ease of use. Article. Anal. Lab Chip, 19(15):2486-2499, 01 Jul 2019 Cited by: 20 articles | PMID: 31251312. Review Chapter 2.4. Dengue non-structural protein 1 (NS1) plays a central role in the early detection of the disease. Lateral flow assays (LFAs) are rapid, inexpensive, easy-to-manufacture and -use tests widely employed in medical and environmental applications, particularly in low resource settings. Historically, LFAs have been stigmatized as having limited sensitivity. An alternate strategy is the use of external fields (i.e., acoustic, thermal, electric, etc. Further, the assay was validated comparing with the in-house developed PCR, and plausible result was obtained. However, as their global usage expands, extensive research has demonstrated that it is possible to substantially improve … The CRICOLAP system achieved ultra-sensitivity of 1 copy/µL in ~32 min by portable real-time fluorescence detection and ~60 min by LFS. Bishop JD, Hsieh HV, Gasperino DJ, Weigl BH. One of the common approaches to improve LFIA sensitivity is the silver enhancement method. Helen Hsieh. Immunological aspects in viral hepatitis B and C infection. Lateral flow assays (lateral flow immunoassays and nucleic acid lateral flow assays) have experienced a great boom in a wide variety of early diagnostic and screening applications. The most common method for NS1 detection is testing by lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) with varying sensitivity. The lateral-flow assay (LFA) platform—the technology underlying the home pregnancy test—has been extensively explored for applications in rapid and inexpensive point-of-care medical diagnostics due to its low cost, ease of use, and sensitivity sufficient for many applications. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. First, we synthesized the 6-MAM and then conjugated it to bovine serum albumin (BSA) to enable it to be coated on a T line. Lateral flow assay. Lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) is the most widely used platform of the point-of-care (POC) detection. The assays are preferably immunoassays and can be multiplexed spatially, spectrally, and both spatially and spectrally. Semantic Scholar extracted view of "Lateral flow aptamer assay integrated smartphone-based portable device for simultaneous detection of multiple targets using upconversion nanoparticles" by Birui Jin et al. 25 years experience developing lateral flow assays, BBI is a name you can trust Quality - FDA and ANVISA registered manufacturing sites. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Multiplexed assays are disclosed employing quantum dots for applications including the detection of human proteins and the … 2. Lab on a Chip ( IF 6.799 ) Pub Date : 2019-06-28 00:00:00 , DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00104b. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) remains the gold standard in disease diagnostics due to its extreme sensitivity and specificity. ... viruses, and strains and substrains thereof is distinctly detected in a multiplex assay; this is a major enhancement in the state of the art. Another multiplexed lateral flow assay was developed based on fluorescent reporters (Figure 1D). In this study, we present a highly sensitive magneto-enzyme … Results ... Oligonucleotide-linked gold nanoparticle aggregates for enhanced sensitivity in lateral flow assays. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. M. Boyd-Moss, S. Baratchi, M. Di Venere, and K. Khoshmanesh, Lab Chip 16, 3177 (2016). Over the past decade, surface-enhanced Raman … Lab Chip, 19 (2019), pp. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. ... Lateral flow assays (LFAs) provide some of the most attractive point-of … Lab on a Chip 2019, 19 (15) , 2486-2499. Talanta. ... Photothermal enhancement in sensitivity of lateral flow assays for detection of E-coli O157:H7. Lateral flow assay (LFA) has become one of the most widely used point-of-care diagnostic methods due to its simplicity and low cost. Through these improvements, the proposed test strip enabled the detection of BNP down to 0.1 ng/mL within 10–15 min, presenting ~15-fold sensitivity enhancement over … The test kit includes a lateral flow assay device having a housing and a membrane disposed within the housing, the membrane having a detection region and a collection region. Through these improvements, the proposed test strip enabled the detection of BNP down to 0.1 ng/mL within 10–15 min, presenting ~15-fold sensitivity enhancement over … Potato virus Х (PVX) was selected as a target analyte … Lateral flow immunoassay systems. In fact, the lateral flow and the flow-through assays can be also regarded as “paper-based” assays, since the porous/reactive membrane is made up of cellulosic materials [7, 8]. The concentration of HAuCl 4 in this reaction system was increased to 30 mM to show the color difference. It has recently been reported that LFA performance can be improved by using magnetic reporter particles and an external magnetic field applied at the test line. Joshua D Bishop,Helen V Hsieh,David J Gasperino,Bernhard H Weigl. 2486-2499, 10.1039/C9LC00104B. The overall sensitivity of LFIC assays was 91.1% for the Wondfo SARS-CoV-2 Antibody test, 72.2% for the INNOVITA 2019-nCoV IgG, 85.6% for the INNOVITA 2019-nCoV IgM, and 92.2% for the NtAb assay. We developed a lateral flow immunoassay of the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 using spherical Au NPs and compared three approaches for reducing the limit of detection. AbstractFrequent screening of at-risk individuals using paper-based point-of-care diagnostics is a promising method for attenuating the spread of chlamydia and HIV. employed for the LFIA analysis. Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA) are point-of-care test strip devices with many interesting features including easy to use operation, being cheap, benefiting considerable sensitivity and specificity, rapidness, and robustness. 35 Low sensitivity of LFIA test was also observed in two separate studies in Iran and Germany with 47.9% and 36.4% sensitivities, respectively. Brief Overview of Lateral Flow – Current Market Scope and Standard Technology. A multicolor multiplex lateral flow assay for high-sensitivity analyte detection using persistent luminescent nanophosphors. Lab Chip, 19(15):2486-2499, 01 Jul 2019 Cited by: 9 articles | PMID: 31251312. Review There is provided a lateral flow assay device for detecting the presence or quantity of an analyte residing in a test sample where the lateral flow assay device has a porous membrane in communication with a wicking pad. A multicolor multiplex lateral flow assay for high-sensitivity analyte detection using persistent luminescent nanophosphors. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Lab Chip. Lab on a Chip 2019, 19 (15) , 2486-2499. Talanta 152, 269–276 (2016). Dual Lateral Flow Biosensor Detection Assay of Reference Oligonucleotides with Signal Enhancement with Gold Nanoparticle Conjugates The target mixtures were prepared as before (Section 2.8 ). For this reason, a platform for 384‐multiplexed affinity‐based assay based on lateral flow with sensitivity of<30 ng/mL within ten minutes, has been developed. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Anal Methods. The lateral flow assay (LFA) format we develop is based on a non-competitive antigen assay, comparable in construction to commercially available lateral flow assays found in the local drug store. ... J.D. Over the past decade, surface-enhanced Raman … Studies have been carried out to improve the detection sensitivity to allow the development of high sensitivity assays [Tor-res and Ridker, 2003], improve the labeling strategies, enhance the optical and electrochemical transducers David Gasperino. The limit of detection (LOD) of the proposed assay for Clen was 12.5 pg/mL, which was 4.9 times lower than that of the traditional lateral flow assay based on gold nanospheres (61.4 pg/mL). While easy to use, LFA suffers from its low sensitivity and poor quantification, which largely limits its applications for early disease diagnosis and requires further testing to eliminate false-negative results. The fluid sample is applied to a lateral flow strip, and thereafter an enhancement solution is applied that enhances the results of the test. The ALP-enhanced LFIA does not require additional preparation procedures or washing steps and may be used by nontrained persons in resource-limited conditions and may lead to application for routine LFIA in different areas. This study … Lateral flow assay with pressure meter readout for rapid point-of-care detection of disease-associated protein. The utility of serological assays in COVID-19 is manifold. Visually-read, LFIAs typical use colloidal gold or colored latex as the reporter elements for the recognition binding event (Figure 1). This critical review has compiled state-of-the-art approaches to LFA sensitivity enhancement from a system-level perspective and observed that the advantages and disadvantages of each approach have arisen from the integrated and tightly interconnected chemical, physical, and optical properties of LFAs. Immunochromatographic assays are widely used to detect many analytes. The ALP-enhanced LFIA does not require additional preparation procedures or washing steps and may be used by nontrained persons in resource-limited conditions and may lead to application for routine LFIA in different areas. Fluorescent nanobeads have been employed for sensitive and rapid detection of cancer cells by flow cytometry, obtaining an increased detection sensitivity with respect to standard methods. Methods: To this end, we established a highly sensitive and reliable POC lateral flow strip based on lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (NPs) for cTnI determination in human blood samples. ... A current perspective. A SERS probe was developed which comprised of Raman reporter molecules (RRM) and goldNPs. ... Yang H, Gong Y, et al. Abstract. The FND-based lateral flow assay can provide 10 5 times higher sensitivity than conventional AuNPs. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering, 88 (1): p. 53-56, 1999. Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective.
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